Bangla
Literature dates back to at least the
7th century and may be divided into three main periods: ancient,
medieval, and modern. The different periods may be dated as
follows: ancient period from 650-1200, medieval period from
1200-1800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present. The
medieval period may again be divided into three periods: early
medieval-also known as the period of transition- from 1200-1350;
high medieval from 1350-1700, including the pre-Chaitanya period
from 1350-1500 and the Chaitanya period from 1500-1700; and late
medieval from 1700-1800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can
again be divided into six phases: the era of prose from 1800-1860,
the era of development from 1860-1900, the phase
of rabindranath
tagore(1861-1941) from 1890-1930, the post-Rabindranath
phase from 1930 to 1947, the post-partition phase from 1947 to
1970, and the Bangladesh phase from 1971 to the
present.
Ancient
periodThe conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in
the 3rd century BC led to the spread of Aryan languages in the
Bengal delta. The bangla
language, however, developed
from prakrit,
through apabhrangshaand abahatthaand outside
the direct influence of Aryan languages. The earliest extant
specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymns now known as
charyapada composed by
Buddhist monks. Because the language of these hymns is only partly
understood, it is called sandhya or twilight
language. The Charyapada hymns possess both linguistic and
literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composers of the
Charyapada hymns, include Luipa,
Bhusukupa, kahnapaand Shavarpa.
Early medieval:
Period of transition(1201-1350)The anecdotes,
rhymes and sayings of dakand khanamay be dated
to this period. The Apabhramsa of the Charyapada became more
Bangla in character. Among the specimens of this period is Ramai
Pandit's narrative poem shunyapurana (13th-14th
century). Another example of early Bangla is a collection of
lyrical poems in Apabhramsa entitled Prakrtapaingala. A
Bangla song has also been found in Halayudh
Mishra's sanskritbook shekhashubhodaya (c
1203).
High medieval: Pre-Chaitanya
period(1350-1500) During this period, Bangla literature developed in three main
areas: vaisnava
literature, Mangala literature and translation
literature. This period also saw the beginning of Muslim Bangla
literature in the form of romantic and narrative
poems.
The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the
poet Baru Chandidas (14th century) who
rendered jaydev's Sanskrit
lyrics about radhaand krishnainto Bangla.
The names of several poets who went by the name
of chandidashave been
found in the Middle Ages: Adi Chandidas, Kavi Chandidas, Dvija
Chandidas and Dina Chandidas. The confusion about whether there
were one or several poets called Chandidas is known in Bangla
literature as the 'Chandidas riddle'. Chandidas has been credited
with over a thousand lyrics. The introduction to srikrishnakirtan edited
by Basantaranjan Ray Vidvadvallabh and published in 1916
by vangiya sahitya
parishadmentions the name of Baru Chandidas. He
was perhaps the original Chandidas who composed verses in
1350.
The patronage provided by the Muslim
rulers, particularly Sultan Alauddin Hussein Shah, his son Nasrat
Shah and commander-in-chief, paragal
khan, in promoting Bangla literature is
specially noteworthy. The 45-year rule of the Hussein Shah dynasty
(1493-1538) in Bengal not only led to political, social and
cultural prosperity, but also
nurtured bangla
languageand literature. It was during the
rule of Hussein Shah that some Bengali poets began composing lyrics
in brajabuli. It was also
during his rule that Kanka wrote Vidyasundar Kahini
in praise of satya
pir(c 1502).
Padavali or lyrical
literaturePadavali and other medieval lyrics
were based on the story of Radha and Krishna and were written by
innumerable poets, Hindu and Muslim, including some women poets.
Among the padavali poets were
Chandidas, jnanadas,
Lochandas, govindadas, Rayshekhar, Shashishekhar,
Balaram Das, Narottam Das, Narahari Das and Radhamohan
Thakur.
Translated
literatureMaladhar Basu composed
Srikrsnavijay, a free translation of the Sanskrit
Shrimadbhagavata. The poem is also known as
Govindamangal or Govindavijay and is believed to be
the earliest translation work in Bangla. Several poets translated
the Sanskrit Bhagavata, Ramayana and
Mahabharata into Bangla during this
period. krittivas
ojha(15th century) was the first to
translate the Ramayana into Bangla. He was followed by
several other poets. In the 17th
century, chandravati, daughter
of dwija
bansidas, the composer of
Manasamangal, wrote Ramayanagatha. The first Bangla
version of the Mahabharata was possibly Kavindra
Parameshwar's Mahabharata or Kavindra
Mahabharata (1525). Sanjay and Shrikar
Nandi also wrote versions of the Mahabharata. Popularly, the
most important Bangla Mahabharata was, however, composed
by kashiram
dasaround 1602-10. It is probable, however, that
other poets also contributed towards the final version that was
printed at Serampore Press in 1801-3. Because of its refined
language and feelings of devotion, this version became more popular
than other Bangla versions.
Mangalkavya The oldest of the extant
mangalkavyas is Manasamangal,
byvijay
gupta, composed perhaps in 1494-95.
According to the bhanita, or signature piece, Vijay Gupta
was a resident of the village of Fullasri
in barisal. Vijay
Gupta's contemporary, bipradas
pipilai, also wrote a poem
on manasatitled
Manasavijay (c 1494). Another version of Manasamangal
is Narayan Dev's Padmapurana. These narrative lyrics
describe the greatness of the gods and goddesses, but also provide
vivid pictures of a land oppressed on the one hand by kings and on
the other by floods, famines, epidemics, snakes, and tigers.
Another important genre of mangalkavya is Chandimangal. Its
first composer, Manik Datta, perhaps belonged to the pre-Chaitanya
era. He was followed by the poet Madhavacharya towards the end of
the 16th century. Two other famous poets of Chandimangal
were mukundaram
chakravartiand Dvija Madhav.
Muslim Bangla
literatureThe poems written by Muslims during
the Middle Ages can be divided into 6 groups: narrative poems
(based on Muslim and Indian stories), religious poems, poems on
cultural links, dirges, poems on astrology and poems on musicology.
The greatest contribution of the Muslims to Bangla literature
during this period was, however, the introduction of narrative and
romantic poems, many of them being free translations or adaptations
of arabicor persianromances.
Shah Muhammad Sagir (c 1400) was one of the
earliest of the Bengali Muslim poets. Though his romance yusuf-zulekha contains no
signature piece identifying him, he is generally regarded as being
from East Bengal as copies of his poems have been found in the
Chittagong-Comilla-Tripura region. Other epic poets include
Jainuddin, Muzammil, Sheikh Faizullah, Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan.
Jainuddin became famous with Rasulbijay, his only epic.
Muzammil became famous mainly for his three poetic works:
Nitishastravarta, Sayatnama and
Khanjancharita.
Donagazi's Saifulmuluk Badiuzzamal
(mid-16th century) is written in simple language and reveals the
influence of Prakrit. Sheikh Faizullah occupies an important place
among the Muslim poets of the medieval period with
Goraksavijay, Gazivijay, Satyapir (1575),
Zainaber Chautisha and Ragnama. Goraksavijay, which
is based on Kavindra's poem, is in two parts. Part one describes
how Gorakhnath rescued his guru, Minanath, while part two describes
the ascetic life of King Gopichandra. Zainaber Chautisa
narrates the sad story of Karbala in the form of Zainab's lament.
Daulat Uzir Bahram Khan's only extant work, laily-majnu, evidently
composed between 1560 and 1575, is a thematic translation of the
Persian poet Zami's Laily-Majnu.
Several Muslim poets were influenced
by vaisnavism, among them Chand Kazi (15th
century), and Afzal Ali (17th century). Chand Kazi was the Kazi of
Nabadwip under Sultan Hussein Shah (1493-1519) when Vaishnavism
spread to Nabadwip. Afzal Ali's Nasihatnama is composed in
the Vaishnava style.
Other medieval Muslim poets
include syed
sultan(c 1550-1648, nabi
bangsha, Shab-i-Miraj, Rasulbijay,
Ofat-i-Rasul, Jaykum Rajar Ladai, Iblisnama,
Jnanachautisha, Jnanapradip, marfati
gan, padavali), Sheikh Paran (c 1550-1615, nurnama ,
Nasihatnama), Haji Muhammad (c 1550-1620, Nur Jamal,
Suratnama), Nasrullah Khan (c 1560-1625, janganama, Musar
Sawwal, Shariatnama, Hidayitul Islam),
Muhammad Khan (c 1580-1650, Satya-Kali-Vivad-Sangbad,
Hanifar Ladai, Maktul Husein), Syed
Martuza (c 1590-1662, Yog-Kalandar, padavali), Sheikh
Muttalib (c 1595-1660, Kifayitul-Musallin), Mir Muhammad
Shafi (c 1559-1630, Nurnama, Nurkandil,
Sayatnama), abdul
hakim(c 1620-1690,
Lalmati-Sayfulmulk, Nurnama). Poets who composed
between 1600 and 1757 include nawajis
khan, Qamar Ali, Mangal (Chand), Abdul
Nabi, Muhammad Fasih, Fakir Garibullah, Muhammad Yakub, Sheikh
Mansur, Muhammad Uzir Ali, Sheikh Sadi and Heyat Mamud. Syed
Sultan's Nabibamsa, Muhammad Khan's Maktul
Husein and sheikh
chand's Rasulbijay are known as Islamic
Puranas.
Chaitanya
era(1500-1700) sri
chaitanyanot only
introduced the Gaudiya school of Vaishavism in Bengal, but also
inspired a powerful group of writers to write biographies about
him, among them Govindadas Karmakar's Govindadaser
Kadacha, Jayananda's chaitanyamangal (end of
the 16th century), Brndabandas' Chaitanyabhagavat (1573),
Lochandas' (1523-1589) Chaitanyamangal
and krishnadasa
kaviraja's chaitanya
charitamrita (1615). Several other biographies were
also written about Chaitanyadev's followers including Narahari
Chakravarti's Bhaktiratnakar (biographies of Chaitanya
followers) Nityananda Das' Premavilas (biographies of
Shrinivas, Narottam and Shyamananda) and Ishan Nagar's
Advaitaprakash (1568-69). Chaitanyacharitamrta is
considered to be the best biography of Chaitanyadev. This scholarly
book contains his life story, his philosophy and devotion, all
expressed in simple language. Jayananda's Chaitanyamangal
contains many interesting facts of the period, for example, how the
Hindus were learning Persian and wearing Muslim
outfits.
Bangla literature in Arakan Towards
the end of the Middle Ages, there was considerable cultivation of
Bangla literature in the independent and semi-independent states on
the borders of Bengal. Arakan became a tributary state of Gaud in
1430. For the subsequent 200 years the rulers of Arakan patronised
Bangla language and literature. Among those who
wrote poetryin Bangla
under the patronage of the Arakan court
was daulat
qazi(about 1600-1638) whose Satimayna
O Lorchandrani was the first Bangla romance. Daulat Qazi
was unable to complete the poem which was later completed
by alaol(c 1607-1680).
Apart from padmavati, believed to be
his finest poem, Alaol also wrote Saifulmulk
Badiuzzamal, a Bangla rendering of a Persian narrative about
the romance of prince Saifulmulk and the fairy princess
Badiuzzamal. Arakan's other poets include Maradan (about 1600-1645)
who wrote Nasirnama, and quraishi magan
thakurwho wrote Chandravati, a fairy-tale
narrative.
Late Medieval
period(1700-1800) The close of the
medieval period was in many ways a period of decline. The decline
of the Mughal Empire, the inroads of the European trading powers
and the establishment of the British halted the natural flow of
literary creation. However, the tradition of Vaishnava literature,
mangalkavya, and translation work continued. There was a great deal
of influence of both the Hindu Puranas and Islamic thoughts. The
main literary productions of the period include padavali and
mangalkavya.
PadavaliPadavali writers in
the 18th century include Narahari Chakravarti, Natavar Das,
Dinabandhu Das, Chandrashekhar-Shashishekhar and Jagadananda. Their
poems were, however, more full of ornamentation than
meaning.
MangalkavyaVersions of Chandimangal
continued to be composed, an important version being that by
Ramchandra Yati written 1766-67. Interest also grew in
Dharmamangal, with several poets, including Ghanaram
Chakravarti, Narasingha Basu, Manikram Ganguli, Ramkanta Ray and
Sahadev Chakravarti, writing different versions. Mangalkavyas also
started being composed about new deities, for example,
Suryamangal, Gangamangal, Shitalamangal,
Laksmimangal, Sasthimangal and
Sarasvatimangal. Special mention may be made of Durgadas
Mukherjee's Gabgabhaktitarabgini.
bharatchandra, perhaps the
greatest poet of the 18th century, wrote Nagastak and
Gangastak in Sanskrit and, in Bangla, satyanarayaner panchali,
Rasamanjari as well as Annadamangal.
Annadamangal contains eight episodes and three parts:
Shivayan-Annadamangal, Vidyasundar-Kalikamangal and
Mansingha-Annapurnamangal. The character of Annada links the
different parts although the main story is how Bhavananda's
fortunes were transformed through Annada's blessings. Bharatchandra
had originally planned to write an epic on the model of
Kavikankan's Shrishrichandimangal, but, bowing to the taste
of the 18th century and the desire of
Raja krishnachandra
roy, he turned it into the story of Vidyasundar. As a
result, Bharatchandra's poem is a mangalkavya only in form.
Although the poet was himself inclined towards Vaishnavism, he
presented the deities as fun-loving human beings.
Annadamangal influenced later poets in many ways; the poets
of Kalikamangal copied it extensively.
Ramprasad and
othersIn the artificial atmosphere of an age of
decline, ramprasad
sen(1721-1781) was an exception because
of his sincere devotionalism and simplicity of language. Although
he was reputed for his Shaktapadavali, he also wrote
Vidyasundarkahini and Krsnakirtan. In the songs of
Ramprasad the fierce Kali turned into a kindly mother. Some other
poets of this genre were Radhakanta Mishra (perhaps the first poet
of Kolkata), Kavindra Chakravarti and Nidhiram Acharya
of chittagong.
FolkloreAn important part of
18th century literature was oral literature, the main theme of
which was love. Because this literature was unwritten it kept on
changing, right up to the 19th century. In much folklore the main
role is played by a woman. The most important folkore collections
are maimansingha gitika by
Dinesh Chandra Sen and Purbabanga-Gitika by Chandrakumar
De.
Modern
period(1800- ) The modern period of Bangla
literature is usually dated from the foundation
of fort william
collegein 1800. The distinguishing features of
Bangla literature of this period were: (a) the rise and development
of powerful prose literature; (b) the influence of Sanskrit
scholars on prose during the first half of the 19th century; (c)
the influence of western literature; (d) the diversification of
subjects; (e) the rise of periodical literature; (f) the elevation
of colloquial language to the status of a literary language; (g)
the development of new poetic genres. The writers of this period
were inspired by the ideal of creating a universal, eternal and
independent literature. There was also at this time a growing
awareness that literature greatly influenced national life and that
it was the finest measure of national character.
The modern period may be divided into six phases. In
the first phase (1800-1850), the era of prose, Christian
missionaries and Sanskrit scholars ushered in modernism through
their prose writing. In the second phase, the era of development
(1850-1900), Bengali writers, influenced by the west, created
novels and poems that have stood the test of time. The third phase,
the era of Rabindranath Tagore (1890-1930), was dominated by the
poet, and, although shorter, was prolific. The very short fourth
phase, the post-Rabindranath Tagore phase (1930-1947), from the era
of Rabindranath Tagore to the partition of India, is regarded as a
separate phase outside the Tagore influence. The fifth phase, the
post-partition phase (1947-1970), saw the political division of
Bengal and the bifurcation of Bangla literature into the literature
of West Bengal and the literature of East Bengal/East Pakistan. The
six and latest phase is the Bangladesh phase.
Modern period: The
era of prose(1800-1860) Bangla prose
writing developed in the 18th century mainly for adminstrative and
proselytising purposes. The first Bangla books were those by
Christian missionaries. dom
antonio's
Brahmin-Roman-Catholic-Sangbad, for example, was the first
Bangla book to be printed towards the end of the 17th century. The
foreign rulers also felt the need to learn Bangla, leading to the
compilation of dictionaries and the writing of books of grammar.
The Portuguese missionary Manoel da Assumpcam's bilingual
dictionary, Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido
em duas partes, was printed in Roman script from Lisbon in
1743. nathaniel brassey
halhedwrote the first
Bangla grammar, A Grammar
of Bengal Language (1776), to help the English learn Bangla.
The book was printed in 1778 from Hughli Press,
and bangla
scriptwas used in its examples and
quotations. For administrative purposes law books in Bangla were
needed. This is why a number of law books were translated and
published at this time. Forster became well known particularly for
his cornwallis
code(1793) and Shabdakos (1799). Although these
are not original works, they give an idea of the nature of Bangla
prose in the 18th century.
william
carey(1761-1834) came to Bengal for
missionary work but became famous as the pioneer of Bangla prose.
In 1800 he published Mathi Rachita Mangal Samachar, a Bangla
translation of the bible,
from serampore
mission. He later joined Fort William
College and devoted himself to writing textbooks. Fort William
College had been established in Kolkata in May 1800 to prepare
English civil servants for their administrative duties. One of
their subjects was the local language. However, the absence of
proper Bangla texts posed considerable difficulties. A team of
Bangla scholars led by Carey accordingly began writing textbooks in
Bangla. This is how a planned form of Bangla language developed.
Other scholars who helped the development of Bangla prose
were ramram
basu, Golaknath
Sharma, mrityunjay
vidyalankar, tarini charan
mitra, rajib lochon
mukhopadhyay, Chandicharan Munshi and Haraprasad
Roy.
TextbooksAlthough
Fort William College helped develop Bangla prose through the
preparation of Bangla textbooks, later textbooks were written at
the initiative of calcutta school-book
society(established 1817). Some of its main
writers were ram comul
sen(1783-1844), radhakanta
deb(1783-1867), and Tarinicharan Mitra
(1772-1837). Most of their books were didactic. Other textbooks
were written by teachers of serampore
college, including Felix Carey (1786-1822),
John Clark Marshman, and John Mack. Some Bangla writers of the time
such as krishna mohan
banerji(1813-1885) also wrote
textbooks.
While these textbooks were concerned with subject
matter rather than with the literary quality of writing, they form
a valuable addition to Bangla prose writing. By constructing a
language that could communicate modern ideas to Bengali readers,
they helped develop Bangla prose, often by acquiring words and
terms from other languages.
Raja Rammohan Roy (1772/4-1833) also contributed to the
further development of Bangla prose. Some of his well-known books
are translations: Vedanta Grantha (1815),
Vedantasar (1815), Kenopanisad (1816) and
Ishopanisad (1816). His original books include
Bhattacharyer Sahit Vichar (1817),
Gosvamir Sahit Vichar (1817), Sahamaran
Virodhi Pustika, Sahamaran Visay
(1828), gaudiya
vyakaran (1833) etc. The main themes of these
books are religious and didactic.
Many of Rammohan's attempts at reform were
opposed by people such as Mrityunjay Vidyalankar, Radhakanta Deb,
Ramkamal Sen, Kashinath
Tarkapanchanan, bhabanicharan
bandyopadhyay(1787-1848),
and primarily the Christian missionaries of Serampore. Rammohan's
supporters included Ramchandra Vidyavagish,
Prince dwarkanath
tagore(1794-1846), Prasannakumar Thakur, Tarachand
Chakravarti (1806-1857), Chandrashekhar Dev, Gourikanta
Bhattacharya, Gouramohan Vidyalankar, and Rev. Krishna Mohan
Banerji. The propaganda war between Rammohan's supporters and
opponents generated writings, later nicknamed 'Dvairath Dvandva' or
combat between two charioteers, which fed the periodical journals
and the newspapers, at the time the most important medium of Bangla
prose.
The development of Bangla periodicals
and newspapersThe appearance of Bangla periodicals
and newspapers in the second decade of the 19th century helped
create and develop Bangla prose. The missionaries of Serampore
published the first Bangla journal, Masik Digdarshan (April
1818). Other well-known regular and irregular periodicals published
between 1818 and 1831 include Samachardarpan (1818), edited
by John Clark marshman; Sambad
Kaumudi (1821), edited by Tarachand Dutta and Bhabanicharan
Bandyopadhyay; Samachar Chandrika (1822), by Bhabanicharan
Bandyopadhyay; and Bangadut (1829) by Neelmoni Halder. An
important role was also played by the mouthpiece of
the brahma
samaj, tattvabodhini patrika,
which appeared in 1843 and which was edited
by akshay kumar
dattafor 12 years. Other who contributed
to it were iswar chandra
vidyasagar(1820-1891), debendranath
tagore(1817-1905), rajnarayan
basu(1826-1899), dwijendranath
tagore(1840-1926). The journal significantly furthered
the literary efforts of Bengalis.
The rise of the Bangla
novelpeary chand
mitra(1814-1883)
and kali prasanna
singh(1840-1870) were the first Bangla
novelists. Peary Chand Mitra was a fine essayist, writing on a
variety of varied subjects. However, he also wrote the first Bangla
novel, alaler
gharer dulal (1858). Using the pen name of 'Tekchand
Thakur', he used chalita
bhasaor colloquial language to narrate his story of
Bengal society. His language, the common people's language with its
mixture of Arabic, Persian and Hindustani vocabulary, was fondly
called 'alali prose'.
Kali Prasanna Singh brought Bangla even closer to
people by using the colloquial language of Kolkata and its
surrounding areas in his writings. The language used by him in his
novel hutom
pyanchar naksha (1862), depicting the social life of
Kolkata, was more refined than that used by Peary Chand. His
language, called 'hutomi', considerably influenced Bangla prose
during the next century.
The development of sadhu
bhasaThe principal architect of 19th century
Bangla prose was Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. Writing textbooks and
articles, Vidyasagar developed a form
of sadhu
bhasaor formal prose that influenced future
writers.
Among other writers who contributed to the
development of prose was bhudev
mukhopadhyay(1827-94), who
wrote on society, education, history, science, and religion. One of
the prominent scholars of the time,
rajendralal
mitra(1822-1891), used to write mostly in
English but also contributed in Bangla to the monthly journals
Vividhartha Sanggraha (1851), Rahasyasandarva (1851)
and Vividhartha Sanggraha Sandarva (1863). In
1852 rangalal
banerjee(1827-1887) published the
first Bangla book of literary criticism. Rajnarayan Basu wrote on a
variety of subjects in Sekal Ar Ekal (1874), Hindu
College Athaba Presidency College-er Brttanta (1876),
Bangala Bhasa O Sahitya Bisayak Baktrta (1878) and
Atmacharita. Ramgati Nyayaratna (1831-1894) wrote the first
detailed history of Bangla literature (1872, 1873) in Bangala
Bhasa O Bangala Sahitya Bisayak
Prastab.
Modern Period: The era of
development(1860-1900)
(1860-1900) The first modern Bangla novelist
was bankimchandra
chattopadhyaywhose fourteen novels include
Durgeshnandini, Kapalkundala, Krishnakanter
Will, Bisbrksa and Ananadamath. Drawing upon
history as well as contemporary life, Bankimchandra wrote novels
with well-developed plots and characters that continue to be
eminently readable. He also edited a literary monthy, bangadarshan
(1872).
Other significant writers of the time
include Bankimchandra's elder brother
sanjeeb chunder
chattopadhyay(1834-1889)
who also was well known for his novels as well as Palamau,
an excellent travel story. Another writer of merit
was romesh chundr
dutt(1848-1909), who wrote historical
novels. Rabindranath's elder sister
swarna kumari
devi(1855-1932) wrote novels as well as
poems and plays. Her social novels reflect the moral conflicts of
contemporary society. She also edited bharati. Trailokyanath
Mukhopadhyay (1847-1919) wrote a wide range of entertaining stories
for both young and old. He wrote four novels and four books
of short
stories. Indranath Bandyopadhyay (1849-1922)
wrote satirical sketches and novels. Some other established prose
writers of the time were Pratapchandra Ghosh (1845-1921), Shibnath
Shastri, Chandrashekhor Mukhopadhyay (1849-1911), Haraprasad
Shastri (1853-1931), Damodar Mukhopadhyay, Shrishchandra Majumdar
and Nagendranath Gupta (1861-1940).
Essay
writingThis genre was initiated by Bhudev
Mukhopadhyay and reached its zenith at the hands of Bankimchandra.
It was enriched by Bhudev Mukhopadhyay's thoughtful essays on a
variety of subjects. Some of his works in this genre include
Bijnan Rahasya (1875), Vividha Samalochana (1876) and
Krishnacharitra (1886). Other essayists include Bankim's
elder brother Sanjeeb Chunder who wrote Jatra-Samalochana
(1875) and Balyabibaha (1882) and Dwijendranath Tagore who
wrote on linguistics. Other essayists include Troilokyanath Sanyal
(1840-1916), Bandhab (1874),
kaliprosanna
ghosh(1843-1910), Chandranath Basu (1844-1910), Ramdas
Sen (1845-1887) Shibnath Shastri, Purnachandra Basu, Chandrashekhor
Mukhopadhyay (1849-1922) and Haraprasad Shastri.
Bengali Muslim
writersFor a considerable period, Bengali Muslim
poets had made no significant contribution to literature. They
accepted neither Company rule nor the modern ways of the British.
While the 'Young Bengalis' were emulating western ways, the Muslims
were agitating against the British.
Following a change in their political
attitude, middle-class Bengali Muslim writers emerged in the 19th
century. Prominent among them were mir mosharraf
hossain(1847-1912), Moulvi Mohammad
Naimuddin (1832-1907), Dad Ali
(1852-1936), kaikobad(1857-1951),
Sheikh Abdur Rahim, Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Mozammel Huq, Munshi
Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad (1862-1933),
Moulvi mearajuddin
ahmad(1852-1929), Munshi Muhammad
Zamiruddin (1870-1930), abdul hamid khan
yusufzai(1864-1924) and Maulana Mohammad
Moniruzzaman Islamabadi (1875-1950). Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote
nearly 30 books including novels,
plays, satire, poetry, musical plays, and
essays. His best known writing is, however, bisad-sindhu, based on
the incidents at Karbala.
Mozammel Huq wrote both prose and poetry.
His poetry was inspired by the idea of a Muslim renaissance.
However, he excelled in writing prose, including biographies and
novels. He also translated Persian works into Bangla, including the
first part of Shahnama. The first Bangla biography of
Prophet muhammad(Sm) was written by Sheikh Abdur
Rahim. Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi wrote Samaj
Sangskarak, which was, however, banned by the government soon
after publication for its revolutionary content.
The era of Michael
Madhusudan Duttmichael madhusudan
dutt(1824-1873) began writing in English but soon
moved to writing in Bangla. Influenced by his English readings, he
used blank verse and the sonnet form to write his poems. His epic,
meghnadbadh
kavya (1861), combines an eastern subject with
western techniques and style. Sometime after writing
Meghnadbadh, Madhusudan left for Europe where he started
writing sonnets. These were published in 1866 as' Chaturddashpadi
Kavitavali'. He is also credited with having written the first true
tragedy in Bangla.
Madhusudan was followed
by hemchandra
banerjee(1838-1903)
and nabinchandra
sen(1847-1909), who were inspired by
nationalism and hinduism. Hemchandra's epic
Brttrasanghar (1875), based on the Mahabharata, and
Nabinchandra's book of poems Palashir Yuddha (1875), reflect
their nationalistic feelings. Kaikobad was a Muslim poet who wrote
mahashmashan in the
tradition of Hemchandra and Nabinchandra. The misery of the Muslims
of the time made him sad, prompting him to write poems on their
past glory. The 870-page Mahasmasan was written on the
events of the third Panipat war.
Lyrical
poemsThe new trend of lyric poetry was
manifested in kaviganand
Jatra. tappa(a light
classical variety of amorous songs), especially the songs
of nidhu
guptaalso known as Nidhubabu became
popular during this period. These songs were composed and presented
purely for entertainment and therefore were not intended to be of
high literary value. These were however somewhat refined later by
coposers such as gonjla
gaen. Kavigan also became popular among
the urban people. Some famous poets of this period
include bhola
moira, anthony
firingee, and Thakur Singh.
Modern lyrical
poemsThe setter of this
trend, biharilal
chakravarty(1835-1894),
became famous for his poetic work Saradamangal (1879).
Biharilal's language was simple and spontaneous. Among other poets
of the time, surendranath
majumder(1838-1878) became famous for his
poem Mahila. Other poets included Dineshcharan Basu,
Debendranath Sen, Akshay Kumar Baral (1860-1919), Rajanikanta Sen
(1865-1910), Govindadas (1854-1918), Girindamohini Das (1857-1924),
Kamini Roy (1864-1933), Mankumari Basu, Anandachandra Mitra,
Govindachandra Roy, Barodacharan Mitra
and dwijendralal
roy.
Modern dramatic
literatureMadhusudan Dutt established
modernism in Bangla plays as he did in Bangla poetry. He began
writing Bangla plays after noticing the paucity of good plays in
Bangla. Madhusudan's first play, Sharmistha (1859), was
based on the Mahabharata story of
Sharmistha-Devayani-Yayati. His second play, Padmavati
(1860), was based on a Greek classical story. In this play he also
used blank verse for the first time.
Madhusudan also wrote two farces, Ekei Ki Bale
Sabhyata and Buda Saliker Ghare Roun (1860), in which he
used colloquial language and dialect as well as English and Persian
words. But Madhusudan's best play was Krishnakumari (1861),
which has been described as the first successful tragedy in Bangla.
In writing Krishnakumari, Madhusudan ignored eastern
dramatic rules and used western ones.
Madhusudan was followed
by dinabandhu
mitrawhose Nildarpan (1860) has
considerable historical value as it depicts the merciless
exploitation of Bengali farmers by
English indigotraders. The
play played a significant role in ending indigo cultivation. Two
other playwrights who made sigificant contributions were Dwijendra
Lal Roy and girish chandra
ghosh(1844-1912).
The first Muslim playwright was Golam Husain whose play
Hadjvalani was printed in 1864. It was not a complete play,
but rather a string of scenes. Azimuddi's farce, Kadir Mathay
Budor Biye (2nd edition 1868), was written at about the same
time. Mir Mosharraf Hossain wrote several plays in Bangla, among
them Basantakumari (1873), written on the style of Sanskrit
plays, and Zamidar-Darpan (1873), depicting the oppression
of farmers by the landlords.
Late Muslim
writersIn the 1860s the English rulers severely
suppressed the faraizi, wahabiand other
religious and political movements. Towards the end of the century,
Munshi mohammad
meherullahand his disciple, Munshi Muhammad
Zamiruddin, launched a movement to make Bengali Muslims aware of
their Muslim identity through literary efforts. This movement,
known as the 'Sudhakar' movement, was led by Moulvi Mearajuddin
Ahmad, Pandit Reazuddin Ahmad Mashadi, Munshi Sheikh Abdur Rahim
and Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmad. They attempted to make Muslims
conscious of their Islamic heritage and glorious past by creating
literature in their mother tongue Bangla. They also translated some
books into Bangla. This led to the creation of a new stream in
Bangla literature. Their first publication was Islam Tattva.
Thereafter, Sheikh Abdur Rahim and Munshi Muhammad Reazuddin Ahmed
published a weekly journal sudhakar (1889). Though
Muslim Bengalis had made an effort to create literature before this
movement, there had previously been no concerted effort of this
kind. In fact, it was the Sudhakar group that laid the
foundation for a distinct stream of Muslim nationalistic literature
in Bangla.
The dormant talent of Munshi Mohammad
Meherullah (1861-1907) flowered in the wake of severe clashes
with christianity. Of his nine
books, Meherul Islam had a puthi-style nat,
eulogising Prophet Muhammad (S). Its language was simple and easy
but at the same time lucid and elegant. Munshi Muhammad Zamiruddin
(1870-1930) converted to christianity and came to be known as
Father John Zamiruddin. But when he was defeated in a religious
debate, he reconverted to islamand as Munshi
Zamiruddin engaged in propagating Islam. Basically he used his pen
in the service of Islam and became quite famous. Sheikh Abdur Rahim
(1859-1931) wrote about the Muslim heritage of Bengali Muslims and
described the contribution of Islam to human civilisation. His
first book was about the life and contribution of the Prophet
Muhammad (S): Hazrat Muhammader Jibancharita O Dharmaniti
(1887). He was associated with editing Sudhakar, Mihir, Hafez,
Moslem Pratibha, Moslem Hitaisi etc. He wrote thoughtful
articles in the mohammadi. Maulana
Moniruzzaman Islamabadi was a political activist, social worker,
journalist, litterateur and a good orator. He was more famous for
his historical essays. His best literary work was Bharate
Mussalman Sabhyata. He earned literary fame through his
writings in Mihir and Sudhakar. He later edited and
published soltan and
Amir.
Some other Muslim writers of repute were
Deen Muhammad Gangopadhyay (1853-1916), Sheikh Abdul Jabbar
(1881-1918), Munshi Abdul Latif (1870-1936)
and kazi akram
hossain(1896-1963). Abdul Latif was a
nationalist Congress leader before the partition of India, but
nevertheless he became famous for his literary works in the service
of Islam and the Muslims. Kazi Akram Hossain became famous for his
book Islamer Itihas (1924) but he also made significant
contributions in other fields of
literature. mohammad yakub ali
chowdhury(1888-1940) was a rare scholar in the
Muslim society of the time. His Manab Mukut testified to his
depth of knowledge as a philosopher.
Modern period: The Tagore
phase (1890-1930)Rabindranath Tagore was an extraordinary
man who made major contributions to all genres of Bangla
literature. He wrote an immense range of rich and varied forms of
poetry, plays, dance dramas, novels, short stories, essays and over
two thousand songs. Although he was known as 'Vishvakavi' (world
poet) and won the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913 for his book
of poems Gitanjali, he was also a writer of superb prose,
fictional and non-fictional. The volume and variety of his
writings, his high ideals, his social commitment, rendered
Rabindranath an institution by himself. He dominated Bangla
literature for an entire generation and continued to do so long
after his death.
The most popular novelist of this period
was sharat chandra
chattopadhyay(1876-1938). His novels depict, with a
great deal of lucidity and sympathy, the daily life of the
Bengalis, and, above all, the life of the Bengali woman. His novels
continue to be popular and have been translated into almost all
Indian languages. Many have been turned into cinemas and stage
plays.
Other writers of the period
include pramatha
chowdhury(1868-1946),
whose essays and linguistic style greatly influenced a group of
writers. He established the position of colloquial language in
literature and also introduced the format of French short stories
in Bangla literature. probhat kumar
mukhopadhyay(1873-1932)
wrote a number of novels but was at his best at the short story, of
which he wrote over a hundred, most of which end with a sudden
twist. abanindranath
tagore(1871-1951) was a writer of fine colloquial Bangla
prose as evidenced in his autobiographical writings and in his
description of aesthetics.
Some other well-known writers of this
phase were Jagadishchandra Bose (1858-1937), Ramendrasundar
Trivedi, Naresh Chandra Sengupta, Upendranath Gangopadhyay,
Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Monilal Gangopadhyay, Kedarnath
Bandyopadhyay, Khagendranath Mitra, Jagadishchandra
Gupta, jaladhar
sen, Sourindramohan
Mukhopadhyay, nirupama
devi, prabhavati
devi, Sita Devi, Shanta Devi and Hemendrakumar
Roy.
Bangla poetry in
Rabindra eraMost of Rabindranath's contemporary
poets were overshadowed by him and remained under his influence for
over half a century. A number of poets were, however, able to shake
off his influence and establish themselves in their own rights.
Among these poets were Satyendranath Dutta (1882-1922), Mohitlal
Majumder (1888-1952), Kazi Nazrul Islam and Jasimuddin (1902-1976).
Satyendranath demonstrated extraordinary ability in creating new
poetic metres, and was accordingly called the 'magician of metres'.
He was also a sensitive translator.
Mohitlal Majumder paved the way for
modernism. Frankly sexual, his love poems celebrate physical love.
In idiom and structure, however, his style was classical. Nazrul
Islam entered Rabindranath's calm and tranquil sphere like a
meteor, celebrating rebellion and common humanity in poetry that
could be declamatory, fiery, angry, and lyrical at will. The poem
'Bidrohi', that marked his extrance into poetry, ensured his place
in Bangla literature. But he was also a composer and song writer,
writing ghazals and love
songs, as well as hamd and nat as well
as kirtan. Jasimuddin, called 'Palli Kavi'
(rural poet), drew from the tradition of rural Bengal, writing
about the joys and sorrows of rustic life in rhythms that were
based on folk tunes.
Some other well-known poets of this era were
Karunanidhan Bandyopadhyay, Chitta Ranjan Das, Atulprasad Sen,
Kalidas Roy, Kumudranjan Mallik, Narendra Dev, Pramathanath Roy
Chowdhury, Bijay Chandra Majumder, Mankumari Basu, Jatindramohan
Bagchi, Jatindranath Sengupta, Sabitriprasanna Chattopadhyay,
Radharani Devi and Umadevi.
Essay
literatureLike the other writers of this era,
the essayists too were greatly influenced by Rabindranath. The
first of the prominent essayists of this phase was Pramatha
Chowdhury. Through his journal sabujpatra , he
popularised colloquial Bangla prose, proving through his essays
that colloquial language was fit to express both light and serious
thoughts. His use of colloquial Bangla also convivced Rabindranath
to do the same, resulting in Rabindranath's moving in his later
writings from sadhu bhasa to chalita bhasa. Pramatha Chowdhury was
also well known as a literary critic.
Ramendrasundar Trivedi was also a fine
essayist and was primarily known for his essays on scientific
subjects. However, he also wrote essays on philology and grammar,
society and politics and philosophy. His philosophical essays
reveal a depth of thought and originality despite the simplicity of
their language. Balendranath Tagore (1870-1899) was an able
literary critic. Abanindranath Tagore was a fine art critic as well
as folklorist, writing in Bageshwari Shilpa Prabandhabali
and Banglar Vrata about folk art and rituals. Some other
well-known essayists of the era were Mohitlal Majumder, Dinesh
Chandra Sen, Sureshchandra Samajpati, Panchkari Bandyopadhyay
and shashanka mohan
sen.
Post-Rabindra
phase(1930-1947) (1930-1947) The
anti-imperialist movement that began in Bengal following the First
World War and the socialist revolution in Russia also affected
Bangla literature. Though Rabindranath was still writing, around
1930 new writers emerged along with new interests. In 1923
Kallol, a literary journal, began publication in Kolkata
where these new writers were published. Shanibarer Chithi
also provided them indirect support. Two similar journals appeared
around this time: Kalikalam in Kolkata in 1926 and
Pragati in dhakain 1927. The Kallol writers
included Buddhadev Bose and Achintya Kumar
Sengupta.
Fiction and short
stories of the thirtiesThe appearance
of some able litterateurs at this time helped the development of
Bangla fiction and short stories. These writers depicted the lives
of working people, the problems of human existence, the politics of
India, etc. rajshekhar
basu(1880-1960) was the main architect of satirical
short stories in Bangla.
Other famous writers included Bibhutibhushan
Bandyopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay (1898-1971), and Manik
Bandyopadhyay (1908-1956). Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay's work is
distinguished by descriptions of the domestic life of rural
Bangladesh and its scenic beauty. He analyses human behaviour even
as he describes nature's tranquil and charming scenes. His best
work was pather
panchali (1929). Tarashankar Bandyopadhyay was a
powerful writer, writing about the lives of simple peasants,
boatmen and minstrels of rural Bengal. Expansive and comprehensive,
his novels Ganadevata (1942) and Panchagram (1944)
bring rural life alive. His short stories also focus on the
village.
The novelist and short story
writer, manik
bandyopadhyay, was profoundly influenced by Marxism
and by Freudian psychoanalsyis. Putul Nacher Itikatha (1936)
and Padmanadir Majhi (1936) reveal his Marxist leanings as
they do his psycholgical approach.
